What are these Filterable Viruses: A Term Use by Experts

There exists just at the range of vision of our most powerful microscopes, or beyond this range of vision, a large number of microorganisms, the identity of which is uncertain. They are called “filterable” viruses because they will pass through our best clay filters. In 1898 the first of these was discovered by Loeffler and Frosch, in studying the foot and mouth disease of cattle. The same year Beijerinck demonstrated as the cause of mosaic disease of tobacco, a filterable organism. In passing it is interesting to note that as in bacteriology, where the first diseases studied by Pasteur were in the industries, so in this new class of organisms, initial studies were made upon diseases of animals and plants. The application to human diseases came later.

During the next few years, a large number of diseases were investigated in various parts of the world, adding much to our knowledge concerning filterable viruses. By 1913, more than forty diseases were attributed to this cause. Among these were diseases of plants, as the mosaic disease of tobacco; disease of animals, including horses, sheep, cattle, swine, dogs, guinea pigs, rabbits and rats; diseases of birds, especially black birds, and chickens; and diseases of man. The latter list includes small pox, scarlet fever, measles, polyomyelitis, trachoma, rabies, Dengue fever, yellow fever and Rocky Mountain spotted fever.

Recent literature, especially since the war, has been full of work confirming the filterability of the organisms of these diseases and methods and means of their prophylaxis. Of more interest, however, are the new diseases of man which are included, namely, influenza, epidemic encephalitis, trench fever and the “common cold.” There is no need to mention the ravages which influenza has wrought all over the world in the last three years. The discovery of the causative agent is a great step toward its final eradication. Epidemic encephalitis is a new disease little known till the last two years. Its long course however makes it a dreaded affliction and its eradication imperative. Trench fever is of little importance in this country in times of peace at least. The common cold is the most costly of all of our diseases. While various factors are concerned in the common cold, a filterable virus has recently been isolated as one excitant. It is gratifying to know that in all four of these diseases, priority of investigation as to the real cause belongs to American scientists. No longer are our laboratories dependent upon Europe for stimulation.

The nature of the filterable viruses as a group is uncertain. Park divides them into three classes; first, diseases produced by filterable agents of unknown morphology, an example of which is foot and mouth disease. These organisms are probably too small to be visible with our most powerful microscopes. Second, diseases produced by filterable agents shown to be visible. Polyomyeli-tis comes in this class, the virus of which can barely be seen with a microscope. Third, diseases produced by viruses of questionable filterability. In this class are several diseases, one of which is smallpox. Another classification which might be used is a division into plant and animal kingdoms. In the plant kingdom are those viruses closely related to the bacteria, as polyomyelitis and encephalitis. In the animal kingdom, one disease, the agent of which in certain stages is filterable, has lately been shown to be related to protozoa, namely yellow fever. Noguchi has very lately shown this to be Leptospiraicteroides. Probably other diseases, especially those in which mosquitos are involved in transmission, belong in the same group. Both Williams and Hawkins have claimed that the virus of rabies belongs among the rhizopods.

Lately an Italian investigator has shown that any substance which will cause the clumping of the viruses makes these organisms easy to study with the microscope. Great possibilities lie in this field.

There are still many problems to be solved. One that is to be emphasized especially is that more attention be paid to this group of organisms. There should be devised more accurate methods of study, including possibly zoology and botany. When one thinks of the immense amount of work done in attempting to isolate the cause of influenza, much of it of the crudest nature, it is no wonder that the results were negative. The ability to run around with a cotton swab in either hand is not sufficient training to cultivate such delicate organisms as the filterable viruses. Not till the causative agents of these diseases are demonstrated can we go very far in either prophylaxis or treatment. It is a satisfaction to know that already for several diseases, especially smallpox and rabies, we have an absolute preventative in vaccine; and in at least two diseases, polyo-myelitis and hog cholera, a curative serum has been produced. The outlook for future work in this line is bright.

Methods of Precision in Modern Medicine

In discussing the subject of miracles, John Ruskin stated to a group of scientists, philosophers, and clergymen in a London Meeting that he always expected miracles to happen. Like John Ruskin, the great masses of the people are still unconvinced of the reign of law. They believe that many things just happen and that much may be attributed to luck. This is particularly so when it concerns diseases, their recognition and management. The thesis, therefore, that I wish to defend is:

First—During the past few years the methods of physics, chemistry, and biology have been applied to the solution of medical problems with the result that medicine is approaching more and more to an exact science and consequently a successful art. As a corollary to this proposition, I believe that it follows logically that since these methods of exactness require the use of special instruments and special technique, their application requires the cooperative work of several trained men. It is no longer possible for any one man to master and use all of these procedures. It follows, therefore, as second conclusion, that medicine is no longer a one man art. No man can practice this art alone. Third conclusion and one of equal importance is that after all of the scientific methods have been applied in the evaluation of the patient or in the evaluation of his several organs, there still remains the problem which is the most important of all, and that is the bringing together of all accumulated data, assign to each its proper value, give it a final interpretation and above all, determine what should be done. This is the work of the internist.

It was Josh Billings, many years ago, who made the assertion that it is not ignorance that afflicts us, it is knowing so much that is not so. This is true in all branches of thought.

Self criticism is one of the first signs of progress in any branch of thought.

In our most advanced medical groups, self criticism has become very apparent, with the result that every department of medicine is being re-examined and re-valued.

At the present moment there is scarcely a large educational institution in America, that is not making a re-survey of our knowledge of the organs of the body and their functioning, with the purpose not only of determining what their duties are, but also to establish means and methods of estimating these functions. Modern medicine is not so much concerning itself with the administration of drugs as it is to find out exactly how the several organs function, what they contribute to life and defense, and what the causes that disturb this functioning and how to remove the cause.

Medicine like religion and politics, has its fundamentalists and modernists. The fundamentalists are those trained under older methods, who have reached their maturity, and who have developed a great personal capacity for meeting the problems which confront them daily. They view with scorn the introduction of newer instruments, such as the electro-cardiograph for measuring the functioning of the heart, the various laboratory methods that assist in the diagnosis of acute and chronic diseases. They assert with much confidence that these new fangled procedures stunt the physician’s mental growth and prevent his developing that individual clinical ability which is so much needed in medicine.

The modernists, however, continue diligently in the developing of new methods and new procedures which enable them to do earlier in life and with much greater accuracy what the old fundamentalists could do only after years of experience.

These modern methods of precision have lead to results which are nothing less than startling in their accomplishments. That modernism is justified, I wish to prove to you by pointing out:

First—What it does for accuracy in diagnosis, and Secondly—What it has achieved in the matter of treatment.
Under the first title, I shall select a single organ or pair of organs with which you are all familiar, namely the integrity and capacity of the kidneys. This problem may be approached in five different ways. In other words, we have available five entirely different methods of testing which may be applied. The first of these is the examination of the eye grounds or retina. It is not infrequent that the first signal of a kidney damaged, is recognized by the competent oculist.

The second method of approach is one of the oldest in medicine, namely, examination of the kidney excretion. This is so well known that it need not be elaborated. A third method of approach is the determination of kidney functioning, and since the kidneys perform a number of functions, we have a group of tests rather than a single test. For example, we may test by means of a high protein diet, the capacity to excrete urea, and other nitrogenous substances. By another diet, we may determine the capacity to concentrate the urine, by still another, the capacity to eliminate water. And finally, by use of a dye, the general functioning capacity of the kidneys. This latter is known as the phenolsulphonephthalein test and has a particular value to the surgeon.

A fourth procedure is the use of the cystoscope. By the use of it, we are able to determine the kind of material which is being delivered. By cystoscoping each kidney separately, we are enabled to secure secretions of each kidney separately, and we are further enabled to determine the functional capacity of each kidney separately.

The fifth method is determining the renal anatomy and renal physiology by use of the x-ray. This enables us to determine the presence of renal stones, frequently renal tumors, the size of the kidneys, presence of cysts, and sometimes the presence or absence of pus or other fluids in the renal pelvis.

Sixth we have a court from whose decision there is no appeal, it is the chemistry of the blood stream. The witnesses are the several substances which are normally present there in small amounts. It is the kidneys’ duty to evict all above a certain number of milligrams. No guessing is needed, these substances are determined and the kidneys acquitted or proved guilty of incompetence. With the exception of the examination of urine, all of these have been developed in recent years, and by their combined use, we are enabled to survey and estimate the structure and function of the kidneys with an accuracy that certainly closely approaches that of the other modern sciences in solving other problems. What we are doing for kidneys we are beginning to do for other organs.

Can modernists show an equally gratifying progress in the treatment as compared with the recognition of disease ? I believe it can and I shall mention but two triumphs to confirm the statement.

First—The use of the hormone, Insulin in the treatment of diabetes is not surpassed in its far reaching results by any other single modern discovery. It is not a medicine. It is supplying to the patient with diabetes, a ferment, a hormone, a necessary substance which his own organ cannot produce. What is the result? An almost immediate relief from distress, a return to health, a capacity to perform his regular duties, and above all, instead of confronting an early death, he now has prospects of living to the fourth, fifth, or sixth decade. Instead of being a burden to himself, a victim to every mild infection that comes his way, an impossible surgical risk, he can face the world like a man, and live in the hope of seeing many years of happiness. In other words, the use of Insulin coupled with diet which has also been developed by modern science, has added millions of years to lives of human beings.

A second triumph of modern biological chemistry has a somewhat narrower field, but is no less dramatic. There come to every large contagious hospital, victims of diphtheria, who have been neglected by virtue of ignorance, indifference, or poverty. They are usually received in a dying condition. Either they are found bleeding from the mouth or nose, or their necks are girdled with lumps. In either case, death is an equal certainty. During the past year, at the City Hospital at Cleveland, the blood chemistry of these patients, was studied with great care. It led to the discovery in all of the victims that the blood sugar was extremely deficient, amounting sometimes to one-fifth of normal. Since the blood sugar is a necessary food for muscle tissue and especially for heart muscle tissue, the conclusion was reached that it might be of service to these hopeless victims to administer a solution of sugar intravenously. This was immediately tried with the result that out of 80 cases, 44 were saved.

I know of nothing more dramatic or more inspiring in all history, and yet the adoption of a litter of skunks by a mother cat received one thousand times more publicity.

By the free use of the methods of precision developed in chemistry, physics and biology, medicine is becoming a precise art with a mathematical foundation. Personal equations are diminished and the recent student stands, as it were, on the shoulders of the fathers.

These methods of precision require special trained physicians (not merely technicians) in each fundamental branch. Consequently medicine is no longer a one man job but requires the cooperation of several. This is particularly true of personal health surveys, health surveys which require the recognition of disease in the very incipiency. The one man health survey is of small value.

The greatest advances made in treatment have come through applied biochemistry as noted above.
Since diagnosis and treatment can no longer be carried out by one man alone the medicine of the future must be more and more of an institutional function.

What Is Occupational Therapy


Occupational therapists, or OTs, work with anyone who may be experiencing physical, psychological and/or social problems, either from birth or as a result of trauma, illness or ageing. An OT’s goal is to help clients have independent, productive, and satisfying lives.

When people cannot participate effectively in the activities of daily living which are essential to our quality of life, and which we all take for granted – such as having a shower, preparing a favourite meal, getting dressed, or going to work – an occupational therapist has the ideal skills mix to work with that person in improving their functional capacity and therefore quality of life. They can help the individual to develop or recover daily living and work skills, either through the use of purposeful activity or via specialist aids and adaptations.

Occupational Therapy is an applied science and health profession that provides skilled treatment to help individuals achieve and maintain independence in all facets of their lives. OT gives people the “skills for the job of living” necessary for independent and satisfying lives.

They complete a 5 or 6-year post baccalaureate occupational therapy degree. An occupational therapy assistant completes a 2-year associate degree program. Both must complete a supervised fieldwork program during their studies and pass a national certification exam (NBCOT). Many states require continuing education courses to be taken to maintain licensing.

Related Resource: http://www.occupational-therapy-assistants.com/

Occupational therapy treats any physical or mental problem that interferes with a person’s ability to perform activities of daily living. Therapy can be provided for anyone from young children to older adults. Some typical injuries or illnesses are: paralysis, injury to a hand, joint disease, injury that limits movement, cognitive impairments, inability to perform personal care tasks, activity of daily living (ADL), and many more.

The therapist will look at identifying and assessing their client’s difficulties and strengths. They may, for example, check physical ability to carry out certain tasks, assessing a person’s range of movement, strength and balance. They then look at what items the individual may need to carry out the assessed activity, for example furniture or clothes, and finally they will look at the environment, for example the layout of the home or school. Next they will see what support is available. The final stage is to review which activities that person would like to be able to perform more easily.

Related Resource: http://www.physicaltherapyassistantshq.com

Once the assessment process is complete they will start to explore new ways of doing things. Lets take for example a person who is starting to use a wheelchair for the first time. He must first learn to get around his home. It may be necessary to adapt the house by widening the doors, he may also need to look at ways of improving the strength in his upper arms. The aim of an OT is to work in conjunction with the client in looking at ways to facilitate, and put into practice, these alterations and improvements.

These therapists practice in the following areas:
• Pediatric – in schools, community, inpatient hospital based child OT.
• Acute care hospitals
• Inpatient rehabilitation – OTs help in recovery and adaptation for people with disabilities.
• Rehabilitation centers – treating stroke (CVA), spinal cord injuries, head injuries.
• Skilled nursing facilities
• Home Health
• Outpatient clinics
• Specialist assessment centres
• Assisted Living Facilities

Related Resource:  http://www.dentalassistantfaq.com

“Street Smarts” are Mostly Logic

In this day and age, not only is it important to have the knowledge obtained by a good education, but it is just as important to have what is referred to commonly as “street smarts”.  The term can be defined as the possession and proper use of logical thinking in your surroundings and in every day occurrences.  All too often people put too much stock in the amount of education they have acquired, and forget that there are some situations that cannot be solved, or even properly thought through, with a degree of any kind.

We have to make decisions for ourselves in  many different situations, and the thought process and follow through that occurs with each situation can be attributed to logical thinking.  For example, when you are young, and your friends want your help to burn down the vacant house down the street, your body should go through a process which runs down the situation and possible outcomes of your decision.  Now, as a young child, you may not know all of the consequences, so your decision may be much different than if you were 18.  Through life, you should learn the consequences of all of your actions, or at least be able to logically think through a variety of situations, and make a best guess as to what the consequences will be.  This is also a part of logical thinking.  When you are 8, maybe lighting a house on fire sounds fun, but when you are 18, you should know better.  School doesn’t teach you those lessons.

Logical thinking could also come in the form of being a little bit apprehension when approaching different situations.  For example, say you are buying a car, and the price just seems way too good to be true, and the fact is, you don’t quite fully understand the contract you are about to sign.  In this case, trusting your instincts and NOT signing that contract is also a form of logical thinking.  If you don’t understand something, don’t sign it, because as a logical person you should know that nothing comes for free.

Logical reasoning should happen many times a day, and in a variety of different situations.  It is important to have the ability to think through these situations, and figure out the outcome that will best serve you in life.  No school will run down a list of common situations in which you need to use logic, but with life experience you can gain the knowledge you need to ensure you don’t put yourself in a situation that is harmful to you in any way.